Before we discuss the more specific details of paradigms and theories, let’s look broadly at three possible levels of inquiry on which social scientific investigations might be based. These three levels demonstrate that while social scientists share some common beliefs about the value of investigating and understanding human interaction, at what level they investigate that interaction will vary.

At the micro level, social scientists examine the smallest levels of interaction; even in some cases, just “the self” alone. Micro-level analyses might include one-on-one interactions between couples or friends. Or perhaps a researcher is interested in how a person’s perception of self is influenced by his or her social context. In each of these cases, the level of inquiry is micro. Meso-level analyses concern groups, and social scientists who conduct meso-level research might study, for instance, how norms of workplace behavior vary across professions or how children’s sporting clubs are organized. At the macro level, social scientists examine social structures and institutions. Research at the macro level examines large-scale patterns. A study of globalization that examines immigration patters between nations would be an example of a macro-level study.

Social Science at Three Different Levels

Let’s take a closer look at some specific examples of research to better understand each of the three levels of inquiry described previously. Some topics are best suited to be examined at one particular level, while other topics can be studied at each of the three different levels. The particular level of inquiry might shape a social scientist’s questions about the topic, or a social scientist might view the topic from different angles depending on the level of inquiry being employed.

First, let’s consider some examples of different topics that are best suited to a particular level of inquiry. Work by Stephen Marks offers an excellent example of research at the micro-level. In one study, Marks and Shelley MacDermid (1996) draw from prior micro-level theories to empirically study how people balance their roles and identities. In this study, the researchers found that people who experience balance across their multiple roles and activities report lower levels of depression and higher levels of self-esteem and well-being than their less- balanced counterparts. In another study, Marks and colleagues examined the conditions under which husbands and wives feel the most balance across their many roles. They found that different factors are important for different genders. For women, having more paid work hours and more couple time were among the most important factors. For men, having leisure time with their nuclear families was important, and role balance decreased as work hours increased (Marks, Huston, Johnson, & MacDermid, 2001). Both of these studies fall within the category of micro-level analysis.

At the meso–level, social scientists tend to study the experiences of groups and the interactions between groups. In a recent book based on their research with Somali immigrants, Kim Huisman and colleagues (Huisman, Hough, Langellier, & Toner, 2011) examine the interactions between Somalis and Americans in Maine. These researchers found that stereotypes about refugees being unable or unwilling to assimilate and being overly dependent on local social systems are unsubstantiated. In a much different study of group-level interactions, Michael Messner (2009) conducted research on children’s sports leagues. Messner studied interactions among parent volunteers, among youth participants, and between league organizers and parents and found that gender boundaries and hierarchies are perpetuated by the adults who run such leagues. These two studies, while very different in their specific points of focus, have in common their meso-level focus.

Social scientists who conduct macro-level research study interactions at the broadest level, such as interactions between nations or comparisons across nations. Frank, Camp, & Boutcher (2010) provide one example of macro-level research. These researchers examined worldwide changes over time in laws regulating sex. By comparing laws across a number of countries over a period of many years (1945–2005), Frank learned that laws regulating rape, adultery, sodomy, and child sexual abuse shifted in focus from protecting larger entities, such as families, to protecting individuals. In another macro-level study, Leah Ruppanner (2010) [6] studied how national levels of gender equality in 25 different countries affect couples’ divisions of housework. Ruppanner found, among other patterns, that as women’s parliamentary representation increases, so, too, does men’s participation in housework.

While it is true that some topics lend themselves to a particular level of inquiry, there are many topics that could be studied from any of the three levels. The choice depends on the specific interest of the researcher, the approach he or she would like to take, and the sorts of questions he or she wants to be able to answer about the topic. Let’s look at an example. Gang activity has been a topic of interest to social scientists for many years and has been studied from each of the levels of inquiry described here. At the micro level, social scientists might study the inner workings of a specific gang, communication styles, and what everyday life is like for gang members. Though not a scholarly account, one example of a micro-level analysis of gang activity can be found in Sanyika Shakur’s 1993 autobiography, Monster. In his book, Shakur describes his former day-to-day life as a member of the Crips in south-central Los Angeles. Shakur’s recounting of experiences highlights micro-level interactions between himself, fellow Crips members, and other gangs.

At the meso-level, social scientists are likely to examine interactions between gangs or perhaps how different branches of the same gang vary from one area to the next. At the macro level, we could compare the impact of gang activity across communities or examine the economic impact of gangs on nations. Excellent examples of gang research at all three levels of analysis can be found in the Journal of Gang Research published by the National Gang Crime Research Center (NGCRC). Sudir Venkatesh’s study (2008), Gang Leader for a Day, is an example of research on gangs that utilizes all three levels of analysis. Venkatesh conducted participant observation with a gang in Chicago. He learned about the everyday lives of gang members (micro) and how the gang he studied interacted with and fit within the landscape of other gang “franchises” (meso). In addition, Venkatesh described the impact of the gang on the broader community and economy (macro).