{"id":1005,"date":"2024-02-12T11:50:06","date_gmt":"2024-02-12T16:50:06","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc200\/chapter\/traits-temperaments-and-heritability\/"},"modified":"2025-09-07T22:26:31","modified_gmt":"2025-09-08T02:26:31","slug":"traits-temperaments-and-heritability","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/chapter\/traits-temperaments-and-heritability\/","title":{"raw":"Traits, Temperaments, and Heritability","rendered":"Traits, Temperaments, and Heritability"},"content":{"raw":"Trait theorists believe personality can be understood with a set of basic traits. <strong>Personality traits<\/strong> reflect people\u2019s characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Personality traits imply consistency and stability; for example, someone who scores high on extraversion is expected to be sociable in different situations and over time. Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Moody or even-tempered? These personality traits reflect basic dimensions on which people differ. According to trait psychologists, there are a limited number of these dimensions \u2014 dimensions like extraversion, conscientiousness, or agreeableness \u2014 and each individual falls somewhere on each dimension, meaning that they could be low, medium, or high on any specific trait.\r\n\r\nAn important feature of personality traits is that they reflect continuous distributions rather than distinct personality types. This means that when personality psychologists talk about introverts and extraverts, they are not really talking about two distinct types of people who are completely and qualitatively different from one another. Instead, they are talking about people who score relatively low or relatively high along a continuous distribution (i.e., a continuum). In fact, when personality psychologists measure traits like extraversion, they typically find that most people score somewhere in the middle, with smaller numbers showing more extreme levels. From a survey of thousands of people, the distribution of extraversion scores indicates that most people report being moderately, but not extremely, extraverted, with fewer people reporting very high or very low scores.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1004\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"500\" class=\"horiz-picture-big-adjustment\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1001\" style=\"width: 85% !important\" title=\"A bar graph that depicts the number of people at different levels of extraversion, ranging from low to high. The highest number of people have a middle level of extraversion.\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/64\/2024\/02\/original-19-768x724-1.jpg\" alt=\"A bar graph that depicts the number of people at different levels of extraversion, ranging from low to high. The highest number of people have a middle level of extraversion.\" width=\"500\" height=\"471\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure PE.9. Extraversion scores.<\/strong> The distribution of extraversion scores in a sample shows that most people score towards the middle of the extraversion scale, with fewer people who are highly extraverted or highly introverted. <strong>Alt. text:<\/strong> A bar graph that depicts the number of people at different levels of extraversion, ranging from low to high. The highest number of people have a middle level of extraversion. <strong>Source:<\/strong> Figure 14.8 as found in <a href=\"https:\/\/psychology.pressbooks.tru.ca\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology \u2013 1st Canadian Edition<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/deed.en_US\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC-SA Licence<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nEarly trait theorists tried to describe all human personality traits. For example, one trait theorist, Gordon Allport (Allport &amp; Odbert, 1936), found 4,500 words in the English language that could describe people. He organised these personality traits into three categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. A <strong>cardinal trait<\/strong> is one that dominates your entire personality, and hence your life, such as Ebenezer Scrooge\u2019s greed. Cardinal traits are not very common: few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple central traits. <strong>Central traits<\/strong> are those that make up our personalities, such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy. Secondary traits are those that are not quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes. For example, one person gets angry when people try to tickle them; another can only sleep on the left side of the bed; and yet another always orders their salad dressing on the side. And you \u2014 although not normally an anxious person \u2014 feel nervous before making a speech in front of your English class.\r\n<h1>The 16 Personality Factors<\/h1>\r\nIn an effort to make the list of traits more manageable, Raymond Cattell (1957) identified 16 factors or dimensions of personality:\r\n<ul class=\"threecolumn\">\r\n \t<li>warmth,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>reasoning,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>emotional stability,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>dominance,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>liveliness,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>rule-consciousness,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>social boldness,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>sensitivity,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>vigilance,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>abstractedness,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>privateness,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>apprehension,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>openness to change,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>self-reliance,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>perfectionism, and<\/li>\r\n \t<li>tension.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nHe developed a personality assessment based on these 16 factors, called the 16PF. Instead of a trait being present or absent, each dimension is scored over a continuum, from high to low. For example, your level of warmth describes how warm, caring, and nice to others you are. If you score low on this index, you tend to be more distant and cold. A high score on this index signifies you are supportive and comforting. Take <a href=\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/16PF.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this assessment<\/a> based on Cattell\u2019s 16PF, to see which traits may dominate your personality.\r\n<h1>Temperament: Extroversion-Stability Model<\/h1>\r\nPsychologists Hans and Sybil Eysenck focused on <strong>temperament<\/strong>, the inborn, genetically-based personality differences. The Eysencks (Eysenck &amp; Eysenck, 1963) viewed people as having two specific personality dimensions: <strong>extroversion\/introversion<\/strong> and <strong>neuroticism\/stability<\/strong>. They believed personality is largely governed by biology.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1004\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"300\" class=\"vertical-picture-adjustment\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1002\" title=\"A photograph shows Hans and Sybil Eysenck together.\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/64\/2025\/03\/CNX_Psych_11_04_Eysenck.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows Hans and Sybil Eysenck together.\" width=\"300\" height=\"414\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure PE.10. Hans and Sybil Eysenck.<\/strong> Hans and Sybil Eysenck believed that our personality traits are influenced by our genetic inheritance. <strong>Alt. text:<\/strong> A photograph shows Hans and Sybil Eysenck together. <strong>Source:<\/strong> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hans_and_Sybil_Eysenck.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hans and Sybil Eysenck<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User:Sirswindon\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Sirswindon<\/a> is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CC-BY-3.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 3.0 Licence<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAccording to their theory, people high on the trait of <strong>extroversion <\/strong>are sociable and outgoing, and readily connect with others. By contrast, people high on <strong>introversion<\/strong> experienced too much sensory stimulation and arousal, which made them want to seek out quiet settings, engage in solitary behaviours, and limit their interactions with others. In the neuroticism\/stability dimension, people high on <strong>neuroticism<\/strong> tend to be anxious; they tend to have an overactive sympathetic nervous system and, even with low stress, their bodies and emotional state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. In contrast, people high on <strong>stability <\/strong>tend to need more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are considered more emotionally stable.\r\n\r\nMore recently, Jeffrey Gray suggested that these two broad traits are related to fundamental reward and avoidance systems in the brain. Extraverts might be motivated to seek reward, and thus exhibit assertive, reward-seeking behaviour, whereas people high in neuroticism might be motivated to avoid punishment, and thus may experience anxiety as a result of their heightened awareness of the threats in the world around them (Gray, 1981). This model has since been updated (Gray &amp; McNaughton, 2000).\r\n\r\nBased on these two dimensions, the Eysencks\u2019 theory divides people into four quadrants. These quadrants are sometimes compared with the four temperaments described by the Greeks: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, and sanguine.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1004\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"731\" class=\"horiz-picture-medium-adjustment\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1003 size-full\" title=\"A circle is divided vertically and horizontally into four sections by lines with arrows at the ends. Clockwise from the top, the arrows are labeled \u201cUnstable Emotions (Neurotic),\u201d \u201cExtroverted Personality,\u201d \u201cStable Emotions,\u201d and \u201cIntroverted Personality.\u201d The arcs around the perimeter of the circle, clockwise beginning with the top right segment are labeled \u201cCholeric,\u201d \u201cSanguine,\u201d \u201cPhlegmatic,\u201d and \u201cMelancholic.\u201d The sections inside each arc contain descriptive words. Inside the Choleric arc are the words \u201ctouchy, restless, aggressive, excitable, impulsive, and active.\u201d Inside the Sanguine arc are the words \u201csociable, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, and carefree.\u201d Inside the Phlegmatic arc are the words \u201cpassive, thoughtful, peaceful, controlled, reliable, and calm.\u201d Inside the Melancholic arc are the words \u201cmoody, anxious, rigid, pessimistic, unsociable, and quiet.\u201d \" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/64\/2025\/03\/P15-Eysenck-Personality.jpeg\" alt=\"A circle is divided vertically and horizontally into four sections by lines with arrows at the ends. Clockwise from the top, the arrows are labeled \u201cUnstable Emotions (Neurotic),\u201d \u201cExtroverted Personality,\u201d \u201cStable Emotions,\u201d and \u201cIntroverted Personality.\u201d The arcs around the perimeter of the circle, clockwise beginning with the top right segment are labeled \u201cCholeric,\u201d \u201cSanguine,\u201d \u201cPhlegmatic,\u201d and \u201cMelancholic.\u201d The sections inside each arc contain descriptive words. Inside the Choleric arc are the words \u201ctouchy, restless, aggressive, excitable, impulsive, and active.\u201d Inside the Sanguine arc are the words \u201csociable, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, and carefree.\u201d Inside the Phlegmatic arc are the words \u201cpassive, thoughtful, peaceful, controlled, reliable, and calm.\u201d Inside the Melancholic arc are the words \u201cmoody, anxious, rigid, pessimistic, unsociable, and quiet.\u201d \" width=\"731\" height=\"598\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure PE.11. Two personality factors.<\/strong> The Eysencks described two factors to account for variations in our personalities: extroversion\/introversion and emotional stability\/instability. <strong>Alt. text:<\/strong> Circle diagram of personality types divided into four quadrants. Axes are labeled unstable vs. stable emotions and introverted vs. extroverted. Quadrants are choleric (touchy, aggressive, excitable), sanguine (sociable, lively, carefree), phlegmatic (passive, calm, reliable), and melancholic (moody, anxious, quiet). <strong>Source:<\/strong> <span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">11.13 <\/span>as found in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 Licence<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLater, the Eysencks added a third dimension: psychoticism versus superego control. In this dimension, people who are high on <strong>psychoticism<\/strong> tend to be independent thinkers, cold, nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people who are high on <strong>superego control<\/strong> tend to have high impulse control \u2014 they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional (Eysenck et al., 1985).\r\n<h1>The Big Five<\/h1>\r\nWhile Cattell\u2019s 16 factors may be too broad, the Eysencks\u2019 two-factor system has been criticized for being too narrow. Another personality theory, called the <strong>Big Five<\/strong>, effectively hits a middle ground, with its five factors referred to as the Big Five personality factors. It is the most popular theory in personality psychology today and the most accurate approximation of the basic personality dimensions (Funder, 2001). The five factors are: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. A helpful way to remember the factors is by using the mnemonic CANOE.\r\n\r\nThe following YouTube link shows Gabriela Cintron\u2019s student-made video, which cleverly describes common behavioural characteristics of the Big Five personality traits through song:\r\n\r\nWatch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Rk8CDXMb8_U&amp;t=1s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">5 Factors of Personality (OCEAN Song) (3 minutes)<\/a>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Rk8CDXMb8_U\r\n<p class=\"video-figcaption\">\u201c5 Factors of Personality (OCEAN Song)\u201d video by Vy Nguyen is licensed under the Standard YouTube Licence.<\/p>\r\nIn the Big Five, each person has each factor, but they occur along a continuum.\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Openness to experience<\/strong> is characterised by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. People who score high on this factor tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Conscientiousness<\/strong> is characterised by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal- directed behaviour). People who score high on this factor are hardworking and dependable. Numerous studies have found a positive correlation between conscientiousness and academic success (Akomolafe, 2013; Chamorro-Premuzic &amp; Furnham, 2008; Conrad &amp; Patry, 2012; Noftle &amp; Robins, 2007; Wagerman &amp; Funder, 2007).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Extroversion<\/strong> is characterised by sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and emotional expression. People who score high on this factor are usually described as outgoing and warm. Not surprisingly, people who score high on both extroversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their curious and excitement-seeking nature (Tok, 2011).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Agreeableness <\/strong>refers to the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative, yet one recent study reported that men who scored low on this factor actually earned more money than men who were considered more agreeable. This negative correlation between agreeableness and income was not supported in women (Judge et al., 2012).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Neuroticism <\/strong>refers to the tendency to experience negative emotions. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterised as angry, impulsive, and hostile. People reporting high levels of neuroticism often report feeling anxious and unhappy (Watson &amp; Clark,1984). In contrast, people who score low in neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nThe Big Five personality factors each represent a range between two extremes. In reality, most of us tend to lie somewhere midway along the continuum of each factor, rather than at polar ends. It\u2019s important to note that the Big Five factors are relatively stable over our lifespan, with some tendency for the factors to increase or decrease slightly. Researchers have found that conscientiousness increases through young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our personal relationships and careers (Donnellan &amp; Lucas, 2008). Agreeableness also increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years (Terracciano et al., 2005). Neuroticism and extroversion tend to decline slightly with age (Donnellan &amp; Lucas, 2008; Terracciano et al., 2005). Additionally, the Big Five factors have been shown to exist across ethnicities, cultures, and ages, and may have substantial biological and genetic components (Jang et al., 1996, 2006; McCrae &amp; Costa, 1997; Schmitt et al., 2007).\r\n\r\nCheck out the link so you can take the fave factors test to see where you stand in terms of your Big Five scores.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/personality.co\/big5-test?gclid=CjwKCAjw87XBBhBIEiwAxP3_A_33PaEPLGmT4zxX36xBE2d2Sc24dN-IMtA5kMWMpyIhOFVJeUAaHRoC6HwQAvD_BwE&amp;utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=21980235329&amp;utm_content=172032037616&amp;utm_term=the%20big%20five%20ocean%20test&amp;matchtype=e&amp;device=c&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=21980235329&amp;gbraid=0AAAAAC_nwjA9gy-_7amM55e3CLuZuIv1j\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Big 5 personality test<\/a>\r\n\r\nTrait theorists agree that personality traits are important in understanding behaviour, but there are still debates on the exact number and composition of the traits that are most important. For example, Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee (2005) argued that one important class of individual differences was omitted from the Big Five model. Their HEXACO model adds honesty-humility as a sixth dimension of personality. People high in <strong>honesty-humility<\/strong> are sincere, fair, and modest, whereas those low in this trait are manipulative, narcissistic, and self-centred. You may go to the <a href=\"https:\/\/hexaco.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">HEXACO website<\/a> to learn more about the HEXACO model and <a href=\"https:\/\/hexaco.org\/hexaco-inventory\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">download<\/a> the scales in different languages.\r\n<h1>Adaptive Traits<\/h1>\r\nLike trait theorists, evolutionary psychologists look at personality traits that are universal. In this view, adaptive differences have evolved and then provide a survival and reproductive advantage. David Buss (1991) has identified five adaptive traits:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Surgency<\/strong> indicates a person\u2019s preference in a hierarchy. A surgent person tends to dominate and lead others.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Agreeableness<\/strong> marks a person\u2019s willingness to cooperate; however, it is not always maladaptive to be selfish and hostile toward others.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Conscientiousness<\/strong> signals to others whom we can trust and whom we can depend on; however, being less conscientious and dependent on others is not maladaptive.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Emotional stability<\/strong> indicates one\u2019s ability to handle stress. Although hypersensitivity to stress may disrupt everyday functioning and thus is less favoured, vigilance and anxiety may be adaptive and necessary to avoid harm and threat.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In ancestral times, <strong>openness<\/strong> (or intellect) might be expressed in one\u2019s willingness to explore new territories for food and shelter and one\u2019s creativity in solving problems.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1004\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"350\" class=\"horiz-picture-small-adjustment\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1004\" title=\"Rock art depicting people hunting.\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/64\/2025\/03\/Picture11.jpg\" alt=\"Rock art depicting people hunting.\" width=\"350\" height=\"206\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure PE.12. Algerian desert petroglyph.<\/strong> We inherited some personality traits from our ancestors because those traits were useful for them to solve survival and reproductive problems. <strong>Alt. text:<\/strong> Rock art depicting people hunting. <strong>Source:<\/strong> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Algerien_Desert.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Algerian Desert<\/a> by Gruban is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA 2.0 Generic licence<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<h1>Heritability of Traits and Temperament<\/h1>\r\nMost contemporary psychologists believe temperament has a biological basis due to its appearance very early in our lives (Rothbart, 2011). Thomas and Chess (1977) found that babies could be categorised into one of three temperaments: easy, difficult, or slow to warm up. Mary Rothbart and colleagues proposed two temperaments in adulthood \u2014 reactivity and self-regulation (Rothbart et al., 2000). <strong>Reactivity <\/strong>refers to how we respond to new or challenging environmental stimuli; <strong>self-regulation<\/strong> refers to our ability to control that response (Rothbart et al., 2011). For example, one person may immediately respond to new stimuli with a high level of anxiety, while another barely notices it.\r\n\r\nIn the field of behavioural genetics, the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart \u2014 a well-known study of the genetic basis for personality \u2014 conducted research with twins from 1979 to 1999. In studying 350 pairs of twins, including pairs of identical and fraternal twins reared together and apart, researchers found that identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities (Bouchard, 1994; Bouchard et al.,1990; Segal, 2012). These findings suggest the heritability of some personality traits. <strong>Heritability<\/strong> refers to the proportion of difference among people that is attributable to genetics. Some of the traits that the study reported as having more than a 0.50 heritability ratio include leadership, obedience to authority, a sense of well-being, alienation, resistance to stress, and fearfulness. The implication is that some aspects of our personalities are largely controlled by genetics; however, it\u2019s important to point out that traits are not determined by a single gene, but by the complex relationship among the various genes, as well as a variety of random factors. Genetic factors work with environmental factors to create personality. Having a given pattern of genes does not necessarily mean that a particular trait will develop because some traits might occur only in some environments. For example, a person may have a genetic variant that is known to increase their risk for developing emphysema from smoking, but if that person never smokes, then emphysema most likely will not develop.\r\n\r\nOne question that is exceedingly important for the study of personality concerns the extent to which it is the result of nature or nurture. If nature is more important, then our personalities will form early in our lives and may be difficult to change later. If nurture is more important, then our experiences are likely to be particularly important, and our personalities may change in response to experiences over time. While identical twins Paula Bernstein and Elyse Schein turned out to be very similar even though they had been raised separately, those traits that they share are likely to be the result of genes, but environments, particularly those that are unique to individuals, are important in shaping personality as well. In the next section, we will see how personality can be influenced by environments.","rendered":"<p>Trait theorists believe personality can be understood with a set of basic traits. <strong>Personality traits<\/strong> reflect people\u2019s characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Personality traits imply consistency and stability; for example, someone who scores high on extraversion is expected to be sociable in different situations and over time. Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Moody or even-tempered? These personality traits reflect basic dimensions on which people differ. According to trait psychologists, there are a limited number of these dimensions \u2014 dimensions like extraversion, conscientiousness, or agreeableness \u2014 and each individual falls somewhere on each dimension, meaning that they could be low, medium, or high on any specific trait.<\/p>\n<p>An important feature of personality traits is that they reflect continuous distributions rather than distinct personality types. This means that when personality psychologists talk about introverts and extraverts, they are not really talking about two distinct types of people who are completely and qualitatively different from one another. Instead, they are talking about people who score relatively low or relatively high along a continuous distribution (i.e., a continuum). In fact, when personality psychologists measure traits like extraversion, they typically find that most people score somewhere in the middle, with smaller numbers showing more extreme levels. From a survey of thousands of people, the distribution of extraversion scores indicates that most people report being moderately, but not extremely, extraverted, with fewer people reporting very high or very low scores.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1004\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1004\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter horiz-picture-big-adjustment\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1001\" style=\"width: 85% !important\" title=\"A bar graph that depicts the number of people at different levels of extraversion, ranging from low to high. The highest number of people have a middle level of extraversion.\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/64\/2024\/02\/original-19-768x724-1.jpg\" alt=\"A bar graph that depicts the number of people at different levels of extraversion, ranging from low to high. The highest number of people have a middle level of extraversion.\" width=\"500\" height=\"471\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1004\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure PE.9. Extraversion scores.<\/strong> The distribution of extraversion scores in a sample shows that most people score towards the middle of the extraversion scale, with fewer people who are highly extraverted or highly introverted. <strong>Alt. text:<\/strong> A bar graph that depicts the number of people at different levels of extraversion, ranging from low to high. The highest number of people have a middle level of extraversion. <strong>Source:<\/strong> Figure 14.8 as found in <a href=\"https:\/\/psychology.pressbooks.tru.ca\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology \u2013 1st Canadian Edition<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/deed.en_US\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC-SA Licence<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Early trait theorists tried to describe all human personality traits. For example, one trait theorist, Gordon Allport (Allport &amp; Odbert, 1936), found 4,500 words in the English language that could describe people. He organised these personality traits into three categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. A <strong>cardinal trait<\/strong> is one that dominates your entire personality, and hence your life, such as Ebenezer Scrooge\u2019s greed. Cardinal traits are not very common: few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple central traits. <strong>Central traits<\/strong> are those that make up our personalities, such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy. Secondary traits are those that are not quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes. For example, one person gets angry when people try to tickle them; another can only sleep on the left side of the bed; and yet another always orders their salad dressing on the side. And you \u2014 although not normally an anxious person \u2014 feel nervous before making a speech in front of your English class.<\/p>\n<h1>The 16 Personality Factors<\/h1>\n<p>In an effort to make the list of traits more manageable, Raymond Cattell (1957) identified 16 factors or dimensions of personality:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"threecolumn\">\n<li>warmth,<\/li>\n<li>reasoning,<\/li>\n<li>emotional stability,<\/li>\n<li>dominance,<\/li>\n<li>liveliness,<\/li>\n<li>rule-consciousness,<\/li>\n<li>social boldness,<\/li>\n<li>sensitivity,<\/li>\n<li>vigilance,<\/li>\n<li>abstractedness,<\/li>\n<li>privateness,<\/li>\n<li>apprehension,<\/li>\n<li>openness to change,<\/li>\n<li>self-reliance,<\/li>\n<li>perfectionism, and<\/li>\n<li>tension.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>He developed a personality assessment based on these 16 factors, called the 16PF. Instead of a trait being present or absent, each dimension is scored over a continuum, from high to low. For example, your level of warmth describes how warm, caring, and nice to others you are. If you score low on this index, you tend to be more distant and cold. A high score on this index signifies you are supportive and comforting. Take <a href=\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/16PF.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this assessment<\/a> based on Cattell\u2019s 16PF, to see which traits may dominate your personality.<\/p>\n<h1>Temperament: Extroversion-Stability Model<\/h1>\n<p>Psychologists Hans and Sybil Eysenck focused on <strong>temperament<\/strong>, the inborn, genetically-based personality differences. The Eysencks (Eysenck &amp; Eysenck, 1963) viewed people as having two specific personality dimensions: <strong>extroversion\/introversion<\/strong> and <strong>neuroticism\/stability<\/strong>. They believed personality is largely governed by biology.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1004\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1004\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter vertical-picture-adjustment\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1002\" title=\"A photograph shows Hans and Sybil Eysenck together.\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/64\/2025\/03\/CNX_Psych_11_04_Eysenck.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows Hans and Sybil Eysenck together.\" width=\"300\" height=\"414\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1004\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure PE.10. Hans and Sybil Eysenck.<\/strong> Hans and Sybil Eysenck believed that our personality traits are influenced by our genetic inheritance. <strong>Alt. text:<\/strong> A photograph shows Hans and Sybil Eysenck together. <strong>Source:<\/strong> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hans_and_Sybil_Eysenck.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hans and Sybil Eysenck<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User:Sirswindon\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Sirswindon<\/a> is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CC-BY-3.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 3.0 Licence<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>According to their theory, people high on the trait of <strong>extroversion <\/strong>are sociable and outgoing, and readily connect with others. By contrast, people high on <strong>introversion<\/strong> experienced too much sensory stimulation and arousal, which made them want to seek out quiet settings, engage in solitary behaviours, and limit their interactions with others. In the neuroticism\/stability dimension, people high on <strong>neuroticism<\/strong> tend to be anxious; they tend to have an overactive sympathetic nervous system and, even with low stress, their bodies and emotional state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. In contrast, people high on <strong>stability <\/strong>tend to need more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are considered more emotionally stable.<\/p>\n<p>More recently, Jeffrey Gray suggested that these two broad traits are related to fundamental reward and avoidance systems in the brain. Extraverts might be motivated to seek reward, and thus exhibit assertive, reward-seeking behaviour, whereas people high in neuroticism might be motivated to avoid punishment, and thus may experience anxiety as a result of their heightened awareness of the threats in the world around them (Gray, 1981). This model has since been updated (Gray &amp; McNaughton, 2000).<\/p>\n<p>Based on these two dimensions, the Eysencks\u2019 theory divides people into four quadrants. These quadrants are sometimes compared with the four temperaments described by the Greeks: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, and sanguine.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1004\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1004\" style=\"width: 731px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter horiz-picture-medium-adjustment\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1003 size-full\" title=\"A circle is divided vertically and horizontally into four sections by lines with arrows at the ends. Clockwise from the top, the arrows are labeled \u201cUnstable Emotions (Neurotic),\u201d \u201cExtroverted Personality,\u201d \u201cStable Emotions,\u201d and \u201cIntroverted Personality.\u201d The arcs around the perimeter of the circle, clockwise beginning with the top right segment are labeled \u201cCholeric,\u201d \u201cSanguine,\u201d \u201cPhlegmatic,\u201d and \u201cMelancholic.\u201d The sections inside each arc contain descriptive words. Inside the Choleric arc are the words \u201ctouchy, restless, aggressive, excitable, impulsive, and active.\u201d Inside the Sanguine arc are the words \u201csociable, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, and carefree.\u201d Inside the Phlegmatic arc are the words \u201cpassive, thoughtful, peaceful, controlled, reliable, and calm.\u201d Inside the Melancholic arc are the words \u201cmoody, anxious, rigid, pessimistic, unsociable, and quiet.\u201d\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/64\/2025\/03\/P15-Eysenck-Personality.jpeg\" alt=\"A circle is divided vertically and horizontally into four sections by lines with arrows at the ends. Clockwise from the top, the arrows are labeled \u201cUnstable Emotions (Neurotic),\u201d \u201cExtroverted Personality,\u201d \u201cStable Emotions,\u201d and \u201cIntroverted Personality.\u201d The arcs around the perimeter of the circle, clockwise beginning with the top right segment are labeled \u201cCholeric,\u201d \u201cSanguine,\u201d \u201cPhlegmatic,\u201d and \u201cMelancholic.\u201d The sections inside each arc contain descriptive words. Inside the Choleric arc are the words \u201ctouchy, restless, aggressive, excitable, impulsive, and active.\u201d Inside the Sanguine arc are the words \u201csociable, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, and carefree.\u201d Inside the Phlegmatic arc are the words \u201cpassive, thoughtful, peaceful, controlled, reliable, and calm.\u201d Inside the Melancholic arc are the words \u201cmoody, anxious, rigid, pessimistic, unsociable, and quiet.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"598\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1004\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure PE.11. Two personality factors.<\/strong> The Eysencks described two factors to account for variations in our personalities: extroversion\/introversion and emotional stability\/instability. <strong>Alt. text:<\/strong> Circle diagram of personality types divided into four quadrants. Axes are labeled unstable vs. stable emotions and introverted vs. extroverted. Quadrants are choleric (touchy, aggressive, excitable), sanguine (sociable, lively, carefree), phlegmatic (passive, calm, reliable), and melancholic (moody, anxious, quiet). <strong>Source:<\/strong> <span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">11.13 <\/span>as found in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 Licence<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Later, the Eysencks added a third dimension: psychoticism versus superego control. In this dimension, people who are high on <strong>psychoticism<\/strong> tend to be independent thinkers, cold, nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people who are high on <strong>superego control<\/strong> tend to have high impulse control \u2014 they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional (Eysenck et al., 1985).<\/p>\n<h1>The Big Five<\/h1>\n<p>While Cattell\u2019s 16 factors may be too broad, the Eysencks\u2019 two-factor system has been criticized for being too narrow. Another personality theory, called the <strong>Big Five<\/strong>, effectively hits a middle ground, with its five factors referred to as the Big Five personality factors. It is the most popular theory in personality psychology today and the most accurate approximation of the basic personality dimensions (Funder, 2001). The five factors are: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. A helpful way to remember the factors is by using the mnemonic CANOE.<\/p>\n<p>The following YouTube link shows Gabriela Cintron\u2019s student-made video, which cleverly describes common behavioural characteristics of the Big Five personality traits through song:<\/p>\n<p>Watch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Rk8CDXMb8_U&amp;t=1s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">5 Factors of Personality (OCEAN Song) (3 minutes)<\/a><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"5 Factors of Personality (OCEAN Song)\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Rk8CDXMb8_U?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p class=\"video-figcaption\">\u201c5 Factors of Personality (OCEAN Song)\u201d video by Vy Nguyen is licensed under the Standard YouTube Licence.<\/p>\n<p>In the Big Five, each person has each factor, but they occur along a continuum.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Openness to experience<\/strong> is characterised by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. People who score high on this factor tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Conscientiousness<\/strong> is characterised by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal- directed behaviour). People who score high on this factor are hardworking and dependable. Numerous studies have found a positive correlation between conscientiousness and academic success (Akomolafe, 2013; Chamorro-Premuzic &amp; Furnham, 2008; Conrad &amp; Patry, 2012; Noftle &amp; Robins, 2007; Wagerman &amp; Funder, 2007).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Extroversion<\/strong> is characterised by sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and emotional expression. People who score high on this factor are usually described as outgoing and warm. Not surprisingly, people who score high on both extroversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their curious and excitement-seeking nature (Tok, 2011).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Agreeableness <\/strong>refers to the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative, yet one recent study reported that men who scored low on this factor actually earned more money than men who were considered more agreeable. This negative correlation between agreeableness and income was not supported in women (Judge et al., 2012).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Neuroticism <\/strong>refers to the tendency to experience negative emotions. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterised as angry, impulsive, and hostile. People reporting high levels of neuroticism often report feeling anxious and unhappy (Watson &amp; Clark,1984). In contrast, people who score low in neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>The Big Five personality factors each represent a range between two extremes. In reality, most of us tend to lie somewhere midway along the continuum of each factor, rather than at polar ends. It\u2019s important to note that the Big Five factors are relatively stable over our lifespan, with some tendency for the factors to increase or decrease slightly. Researchers have found that conscientiousness increases through young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our personal relationships and careers (Donnellan &amp; Lucas, 2008). Agreeableness also increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years (Terracciano et al., 2005). Neuroticism and extroversion tend to decline slightly with age (Donnellan &amp; Lucas, 2008; Terracciano et al., 2005). Additionally, the Big Five factors have been shown to exist across ethnicities, cultures, and ages, and may have substantial biological and genetic components (Jang et al., 1996, 2006; McCrae &amp; Costa, 1997; Schmitt et al., 2007).<\/p>\n<p>Check out the link so you can take the fave factors test to see where you stand in terms of your Big Five scores.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/personality.co\/big5-test?gclid=CjwKCAjw87XBBhBIEiwAxP3_A_33PaEPLGmT4zxX36xBE2d2Sc24dN-IMtA5kMWMpyIhOFVJeUAaHRoC6HwQAvD_BwE&amp;utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=21980235329&amp;utm_content=172032037616&amp;utm_term=the%20big%20five%20ocean%20test&amp;matchtype=e&amp;device=c&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=21980235329&amp;gbraid=0AAAAAC_nwjA9gy-_7amM55e3CLuZuIv1j\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Big 5 personality test<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Trait theorists agree that personality traits are important in understanding behaviour, but there are still debates on the exact number and composition of the traits that are most important. For example, Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee (2005) argued that one important class of individual differences was omitted from the Big Five model. Their HEXACO model adds honesty-humility as a sixth dimension of personality. People high in <strong>honesty-humility<\/strong> are sincere, fair, and modest, whereas those low in this trait are manipulative, narcissistic, and self-centred. You may go to the <a href=\"https:\/\/hexaco.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">HEXACO website<\/a> to learn more about the HEXACO model and <a href=\"https:\/\/hexaco.org\/hexaco-inventory\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">download<\/a> the scales in different languages.<\/p>\n<h1>Adaptive Traits<\/h1>\n<p>Like trait theorists, evolutionary psychologists look at personality traits that are universal. In this view, adaptive differences have evolved and then provide a survival and reproductive advantage. David Buss (1991) has identified five adaptive traits:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Surgency<\/strong> indicates a person\u2019s preference in a hierarchy. A surgent person tends to dominate and lead others.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Agreeableness<\/strong> marks a person\u2019s willingness to cooperate; however, it is not always maladaptive to be selfish and hostile toward others.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Conscientiousness<\/strong> signals to others whom we can trust and whom we can depend on; however, being less conscientious and dependent on others is not maladaptive.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Emotional stability<\/strong> indicates one\u2019s ability to handle stress. Although hypersensitivity to stress may disrupt everyday functioning and thus is less favoured, vigilance and anxiety may be adaptive and necessary to avoid harm and threat.<\/li>\n<li>In ancestral times, <strong>openness<\/strong> (or intellect) might be expressed in one\u2019s willingness to explore new territories for food and shelter and one\u2019s creativity in solving problems.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1004\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1004\" style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter horiz-picture-small-adjustment\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1004\" title=\"Rock art depicting people hunting.\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/64\/2025\/03\/Picture11.jpg\" alt=\"Rock art depicting people hunting.\" width=\"350\" height=\"206\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1004\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure PE.12. Algerian desert petroglyph.<\/strong> We inherited some personality traits from our ancestors because those traits were useful for them to solve survival and reproductive problems. <strong>Alt. text:<\/strong> Rock art depicting people hunting. <strong>Source:<\/strong> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Algerien_Desert.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Algerian Desert<\/a> by Gruban is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA 2.0 Generic licence<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h1>Heritability of Traits and Temperament<\/h1>\n<p>Most contemporary psychologists believe temperament has a biological basis due to its appearance very early in our lives (Rothbart, 2011). Thomas and Chess (1977) found that babies could be categorised into one of three temperaments: easy, difficult, or slow to warm up. Mary Rothbart and colleagues proposed two temperaments in adulthood \u2014 reactivity and self-regulation (Rothbart et al., 2000). <strong>Reactivity <\/strong>refers to how we respond to new or challenging environmental stimuli; <strong>self-regulation<\/strong> refers to our ability to control that response (Rothbart et al., 2011). For example, one person may immediately respond to new stimuli with a high level of anxiety, while another barely notices it.<\/p>\n<p>In the field of behavioural genetics, the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart \u2014 a well-known study of the genetic basis for personality \u2014 conducted research with twins from 1979 to 1999. In studying 350 pairs of twins, including pairs of identical and fraternal twins reared together and apart, researchers found that identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities (Bouchard, 1994; Bouchard et al.,1990; Segal, 2012). These findings suggest the heritability of some personality traits. <strong>Heritability<\/strong> refers to the proportion of difference among people that is attributable to genetics. Some of the traits that the study reported as having more than a 0.50 heritability ratio include leadership, obedience to authority, a sense of well-being, alienation, resistance to stress, and fearfulness. The implication is that some aspects of our personalities are largely controlled by genetics; however, it\u2019s important to point out that traits are not determined by a single gene, but by the complex relationship among the various genes, as well as a variety of random factors. Genetic factors work with environmental factors to create personality. Having a given pattern of genes does not necessarily mean that a particular trait will develop because some traits might occur only in some environments. For example, a person may have a genetic variant that is known to increase their risk for developing emphysema from smoking, but if that person never smokes, then emphysema most likely will not develop.<\/p>\n<p>One question that is exceedingly important for the study of personality concerns the extent to which it is the result of nature or nurture. If nature is more important, then our personalities will form early in our lives and may be difficult to change later. If nurture is more important, then our experiences are likely to be particularly important, and our personalities may change in response to experiences over time. While identical twins Paula Bernstein and Elyse Schein turned out to be very similar even though they had been raised separately, those traits that they share are likely to be the result of genes, but environments, particularly those that are unique to individuals, are important in shaping personality as well. In the next section, we will see how personality can be influenced by environments.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":88,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["amelia-liangzi-shi"],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-nc-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[106],"license":[56],"class_list":["post-1005","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-amelia-liangzi-shi","license-cc-by-nc-sa"],"part":985,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1005","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/88"}],"version-history":[{"count":12,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1005\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2755,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1005\/revisions\/2755"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/985"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1005\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1005"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1005"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1005"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/psyc205\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1005"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}