{"id":286,"date":"2025-09-03T14:38:46","date_gmt":"2025-09-03T18:38:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=286"},"modified":"2026-02-20T18:29:17","modified_gmt":"2026-02-20T23:29:17","slug":"chapter-6-argument-in-engineering","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/chapter\/chapter-6-argument-in-engineering\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 6: Argument in Engineering","rendered":"Chapter 6: Argument in Engineering"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"menu-table\"><span class=\"menu-table-title\">Chapter Contents<\/span><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-a\">Argument and Persuasion in Technical Communication<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-1\">Understanding Rhetorical Situation<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-2\">Ethical and Professional Responsibilities in Argumentation<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-3\">Formulating Effective Arguments<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-4\">Key Takeaways<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-5\">Practice Task<\/a><\/div>\r\n<h1 id=\"section-a\"><span style=\"color: #664a25\"><strong>Argument and Persuasion in Technical Communication<\/strong><\/span><\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">In engineering, making a strong argument is just as important as finding the right technical solution. In a proposal, for example, you must convince others\u2014whether a client or another decision-maker\u2014that your solution is worth pursuing. This involves earning trust, addressing different viewpoints, and demonstrating that your ideas can withstand scrutiny. When you argue effectively, good solutions are more likely to be understood, accepted, and implemented, even in complex situations.\u00a0<b><\/b><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 id=\"section-1\" class=\"p1\"><span style=\"color: #664a25\"><b>Understanding Rhetorical Situation\u00a0\u00a0<\/b><\/span><b><\/b><\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Rhetoric is the art of effective or persuasive speaking and writing. When you use rhetoric, you aim to convince others to accept your interpretation of facts, help them understand those facts, or motivate them to act in response. The most persuasive messages are well adapted to the knowledge, values, and expectations of readers. Therefore, before you write or speak, ask yourself:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"p2\"><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Who is the audience?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the main message you need to convey?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How will you adapt to the audience\u2019s level of knowledge? (This doesn\u2019t mean \u201cdumbing down\u201d the message. Instead, it means choosing wordings and explanations that make the content clear and accessible.)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How will you establish credibility and demonstrate your expertise through your communication?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 class=\"p1\"><b>Elements of the Rhetorical Situation\u00a0\u00a0<\/b><b><\/b><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">The rhetorical situation is the context in which communication takes place. Understanding this context means examining several key elements that shape how a message is created, delivered, and received. While different textbooks may categorize these elements in slightly different ways, the core components are generally the same: the writer (or speaker), the purpose, the audience, the message, and the broader context.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">As part of context, it is also essential to consider constraints\u2014the local factors that limit or direct the communication process. So, if \"context\" is the broader environment in which communication takes place, \"constraints\" are the walls, ceiling, and floor of that environment. These may include time limits, word counts, access to information, organizational policies, workplace-provided templates, as well as constraints relating to the medium of communication itself. Such constraints can significantly influence the way you structure and present your arguments.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Let\u2019s look at the elements of rhetorical situation in a bit more detail:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Writer<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Writers inevitably bring their own experiences, perspectives, and identities to the act of communication. This includes prior knowledge and learning that shape their approach, as well as personal background factors such as culture, gender, values, and beliefs. These elements\u2014a writer\u2019s \u201cpersonal baggage\u201d\u2014influence decisions about what to include, how to frame ideas, and even which arguments feel most compelling. Far from being purely neutral, writing is always shaped by the writer\u2019s viewpoint. Recognizing these influences in yourself, along with potential biases they may create, is essential for crafting messages that are credible and trustworthy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Purpose<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Purpose is the reason for writing\u2014the outcome you want to achieve through your message. Common purposes include the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><b>Persuade <\/b>\u2013 Convince the audience to adopt a viewpoint or take a specific action.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Educate <\/b>\u2013 Help the audience deepen their understanding of a topic.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Call to action<\/b> \u2013 Motivate the audience to act, change behavior, or support a cause.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Inform <\/b>\u2013 Provide clear, accurate facts or explanations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Entertain <\/b>\u2013 Engage and delight the audience through storytelling, humor, or other creative means.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">In practice, many pieces of writing combine multiple purposes. For example, a proposal primarily aims to persuade but also informs and educates readers about the problem and possible solutions. Being clear about your primary and secondary purposes helps you focus your content, choose the right tone, and structure your message to achieve your writing goals.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Audience<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">An audience\u2019s ability to understand, connect with, and appreciate a message depends on a range of factors, including<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Age<\/b> \u2013 which influences familiarity with certain topics, references, and communication styles.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Social class<\/b> \u2013 which shapes access to resources, life experiences, and perspectives.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Education and experience<\/b> \u2013 which affect background knowledge, vocabulary, and the ability to grasp technical details.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Culture<\/b> \u2013 which influences values, communication norms, and interpretations of meaning.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Expectations<\/b> \u2013 which shape what the audience anticipates in terms of content, tone, and structure.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">By clearly identifying your audience\u2014whether it\u2019s a single decision-maker, a broad public group, or a specialized professional community\u2014you can adapt your content, tone, and level of detail to meet their needs and expectations. Effective communication begins with meeting the audience where they are, then guiding them toward where you want them to be.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Message<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">The message is the core content of your communication\u2014the ideas, information, or arguments you want to convey. It includes not only the main points but also how those points are structured, emphasized, and supported. An effective message is tailored to the specific situation, aligning with the purpose, audience, and context.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Context<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Context refers to the external circumstances that create the need for communication and that influence how the message is received. It shapes both the urgency of the message and the strategies used to convey it. Context can include<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Timing<\/b> \u2013 The contextual moment\u2014including crises, decision deadlines, or key project milestones\u2014during which communication occurs.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Location<\/b> \u2013 The physical or virtual setting where communication takes place, which can affect tone, formality, and accessibility.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Events<\/b> \u2013 Current or recent developments\u2014political, social, economic, or organizational\u2014that frame how the audience interprets the message.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Cultural expectations<\/b> \u2013 Shared norms, traditions, and values that shape what is considered appropriate or persuasive.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">Recognizing context allows writers to adjust their message for maximum relevance and impact. Even a well-crafted argument may fail if it doesn't account for the situation in which it will be delivered.\u00a0<b><\/b><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Constraints<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Constraints are the limitations or requirements that influence how you present your message. After identifying your influences as the writer, purposes, audience, message, and context, consider the possible constraints that relate to each of these.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Writer-related constraints<\/b>\u00a0\u2013 your own expertise, position, or level of authority on the topic<b>\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Purpose-related constraints<\/b>\u00a0\u2013 requirements to meet organizational objectives<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Audience-related constraints<\/b>\u00a0\u2013 technical background, time constraints for reading, or pre-existing biases<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Message-related constraints<\/b> \u2013 availability and reliability of data, or the complexity of the subject matter<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Context-related constraints<\/b>\u00a0\u2013 deadlines, budget constraints, institutional policies, or prevailing cultural norms<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Identifying constraints early can help you refine your approach to better fit the situation.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Once you have clearly defined the elements of the rhetorical situation\u2014writer, purpose, audience, message, context, and constraints\u2014you can plan, draft, and deliver your communication with greater confidence. Every communication task exists within a rhetorical situation. Whether you are writing a report, giving a presentation, or composing an email, success depends on your ability to assess the situation and adapt your approach. Effective communication is built on this awareness and the flexibility to tailor your message to fit the circumstances.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 id=\"section-2\"><span style=\"color: #664a25\">Ethical and Professional Responsibilities in Argumentation<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Making complex ideas accessible is a core part of both effective persuasion and ethical engineering communication. An argument should not exclude, confuse, or mislead its audience. As well as being convincing, ethical arguments must be transparent, fair, and grounded in respect for the people who rely on them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div style=\"margin-top: 20px;margin-bottom: -60px\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1022\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"3840\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1022 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/01\/PHOTOB1-1.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"3840\" height=\"2160\" \/> Photo by <a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/@silverkblack\">Vitaly Gariev<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/photos\/woman-writing-complex-formulas-on-a-chalkboard-wall-4wSQmHIlD0Q\">Unsplash<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">There are several key reasons why clear and accessible argumentation is essential in engineering communication:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Allowing readers to make informed decisions<\/b> \u2013 Engineers often write for a wide range of stakeholders\u2014such as clients, policymakers, interdisciplinary teams, or members of the public\u2014who may not have a technical background. If ideas are not communicated clearly, these audiences cannot make informed, ethical, or safe decisions based on the information provided.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Respect for the audience<\/b> \u2013 Clarity demonstrates respect for the audience\u2019s right to understand the implications of engineering work. Ethical persuasion involves transparency, not manipulation. Overwhelming the audience with jargon or unnecessary complexity can obscure risks or trade-offs and undermine informed consent.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Building trust and credibility<\/b> \u2013 Audiences are more likely to accept an argument when it is clear. Ambiguity or unnecessary complexity can create doubt, foster suspicion, or lead to misinterpretation<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Fulfilling social responsibility<\/b> \u2013 Engineering decisions often affect public safety, the environment, and equity. Clear communication ensures that affected communities can understand what is at stake, participate in meaningful dialogue, and express concerns. This aligns with the engineer\u2019s responsibility to serve the public good.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Supporting accountability<\/b> \u2013 Clear communication creates a transparent record of reasoning and decision-making. If a decision leads to harm, it is essential that the basis for that decision is accessible and understandable\u2014not buried in overly technical language.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">In short, ethical communication in engineering demands that ideas be not only accurate but also understandable. This ensures that decisions are fair, inclusive, and based on a shared understanding\u2014strengthening both the persuasiveness of your argument and your professional integrity.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 id=\"section-3\"><span style=\"color: #664a25\"><b>Formulating Effective Arguments\u00a0<\/b><\/span><b><\/b><\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Many documents in engineering or computer science are designed to present solutions to problems. One of the most important tasks, then, is to establish that the problem is serious enough to warrant attention. A common pitfall in effective argumentation is the tendency to either overstate or understate problems. For example, if a problem could lead to loss of human life, injury, or serious damage to equipment, you must communicate this idea clearly and forcefully. On the other hand, overemphasizing an issue the reader perceives as minor can weaken your argument and reduce your credibility.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">One effective strategy for developing strong arguments is to appeal to the audience\u2019s rationality. In engineering and computer science, this means using measurements, data, and observable facts to support your claims. Emotional appeals may sometimes add context or human perspective, but they should not replace evidence-based reasoning.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">The evidence you provide should meet four key criteria. It should be<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Strong<\/b> \u2013 clearly and convincingly supports your claims<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Specific<\/b> \u2013 directly relates to your argument and fits the given context<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Credible<\/b> \u2013 comes from reliable sources that have been reviewed or tested<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Reasonable<\/b> \u2013 persuades an informed audience through its fair interpretations<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Another effective strategy for creating convincing arguments is to use familiar examples. Examples are especially valuable when addressing readers who may not be deeply familiar with a specific technology or its applications. By illustrating problems and solutions in clear, real-world contexts, you make your argument more accessible and persuasive. Providing examples in an argument is like adding illustrations to a textbook: while text alone can convey information, illustrations make the material more engaging and help clarify complex ideas. In the same way, examples allow your audience to visualize your argument in action.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">For instance, suppose you need to persuade a group of decision-makers who are skeptical about electric vehicles (EVs) because of their higher upfront costs compared to gasoline-powered cars. To promote EV adoption within your company, you might present your case in a meeting as follows:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<p class=\"p2\">While the initial purchase price of an electric vehicle (EV) may be higher than that of a comparable gasoline-powered car, the long-term financial and environmental benefits make EVs a more cost-effective choice over time. In Canada, federal and provincial rebate programs\u2014such as Qu\u00e9bec\u2019s <i>Roulez vert<\/i> incentives or British Columbia\u2019s <i>Go Electric<\/i> program\u2014can significantly reduce the upfront cost. Once purchased, EV owners save on fuel, as electricity is generally cheaper than gasoline, and on maintenance, since EVs have fewer moving parts and require less servicing.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Environmental benefits can also lead to economic advantages. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions and improved air quality can help lower healthcare costs associated with pollution-related illnesses, as seen in other countries. For example, Norway\u2019s widespread EV adoption, supported by strong incentives, has contributed to measurable reductions in air pollution and fuel dependence. This example suggests that higher initial costs are offset over time by savings on fuel, maintenance, and environmental impacts\u2014making EVs both an economical and sustainable choice for the future.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Additionally, citing experts can strengthen your argument by lending authority and credibility to your claims. The opinions and findings of respected professionals in the field reassure your audience that your position is supported by established knowledge. For example, when persuading decision-makers about the cost-effectiveness and environmental benefits of EVs, you can reinforce your case by quoting recognized experts. When doing so, be sure to name the individuals and explain why they are credible sources\u2014whether through their research, professional experience, or contributions to the field.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">To promote EVs within your company, you can include the following paragraph in a report:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<p class=\"p2\">The initial investment in electric vehicles (EVs) may seem higher than that of traditional gasoline-powered cars. However, both the financial and environmental long-term savings make EVs a more cost-effective choice over time. A study by the Natural Resources Defense Council, a leading environmental organization, shows that EV owners can save thousands of dollars over the vehicle's lifetime compared to gasoline vehicles. This includes savings on fuel, maintenance, and repairs <a href=\"#ref-1\">[1]<\/a>. Additionally, the International Council on Clean Transportation, a respected global authority on sustainable transportation, reports that battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in Europe produce 73% fewer life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions compared to gasoline-powered cars. This highlights the significant environmental benefits of widespread EV adoption <a href=\"#ref-2\">[2]<\/a>. These reports demonstrate that EVs not only offer significant financial savings over time but also have important environmental benefits.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\"><b>References<\/b><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"ref-1\" class=\"p1\">[1] <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW182323703 BCX8\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\">E<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\">lectric Power Research Institute (EPRI)<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW182323703 BCX8\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2Themed SCXW182323703 BCX8\">and <\/span><\/span><\/span>Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), \"Valuing improvements in electric vehicle efficiency,\" Apr. 2021. [Online]. Available: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.epri.com\/research\/products\/000000003002030215\">https:\/\/www.epri.com\/research\/products\/000000003002030215<\/a>. [Accessed: July 15, 2025].<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"ref-2\" class=\"p1\">[2] International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), \"Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions from passenger cars in the European Union: A 2025 update and key factors to consider,\" Jul. 25, 2025. [Online]. Available: <a href=\"https:\/\/theicct.org\/publication\/electric-cars-life-cycle-analysis-emissions-europe-jul25\/\"><span class=\"s2\">https:\/\/theicct.org\/publication\/electric-cars-life-cycle-analysis-emissions-europe-jul25\/<\/span><\/a>. [Accessed: July 15, 2025].<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Another key strategy in building a convincing argument is to anticipate potential objections. Problems rarely exist in isolation, and solutions are often shaped\u2014or limited\u2014by factors beyond engineering design. These can include organizational priorities, technical feasibility, legal and ethical requirements, time constraints, and financial limitations. Readers will expect evidence that you have looked beyond the technical details to consider the broader social, environmental, legal, and ethical implications of your work. Addressing these concerns proactively strengthens your credibility and your argument.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">To anticipate objections effectively, consider the kinds of questions your readers might ask:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">Do we really have a problem or need?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">If so, is it important enough to justify action?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">Can the problem realistically be solved?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">What potential solutions exist?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">What benefits can we expect?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">What risks or liabilities should we be aware of?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Reflecting on these questions before framing your arguments strengthens your logic and shows that you understand your audience\u2019s concerns, which helps build trust with them.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Effective argumentation is never just about presenting the facts. It is also about showing why the problem matters to your audience. Therefore, think about their concerns, values, and priorities, and connect your ideas to what they care about.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Ask yourself:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">How is this problem personal to my audience?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">Do I have evidence demonstrating its importance to them?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">How can I connect my argument to what they need or care about?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Stepping outside of your own perspective to see issues from your audience\u2019s viewpoint is one of the most challenging aspects of writing. However, it is also one of the most essential strategies for crafting powerful and effective arguments.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Finally, always be honest in your arguments. Present your case with integrity. Never manipulate or deceive. If readers sense dishonesty, your argument will lose credibility and ultimately collapse.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 id=\"section-4\" class=\"textbox__title\">Key Takeaways<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\n<img class=\"wp-image-1418 alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2025\/09\/media_checklist__1_-removebg-preview-smallsize.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"105\" height=\"105\" \/>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">In engineering, persuasive argument comes from careful analysis and planning. This process often involves<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul style=\"padding-left: 12px !important;margin-left: 0 !important\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Understanding the situation<\/b> \u2013 Consider who you are, why you are communicating, who will read your work, what the content of the message is, and what constraints you may face.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Making complex ideas accessible<\/b> \u2013 Use straightforward language and clear explanations to help your audience follow your reasoning.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><b>Supporting your claims with solid evidence<\/b> \u2013 Draw on data, expert opinions, and sound analysis, while also anticipating and addressing possible objections.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Focusing on these areas will help you create arguments that are technically sound, easy to follow, and persuasive to your audience.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 id=\"section-5\" class=\"textbox__title\">Practice Task<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1476 alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2025\/09\/output-onlinepngtools609x609.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"90\" height=\"90\" \/>Find a document in your field that has an argument, such as a short report or an article.\u00a0<b><\/b><\/p>\r\nIdentify the rhetorical situation.\r\n<ul style=\"padding-left: 12px !important;margin-left: 0 !important\">\r\n \t<li>Who wrote it?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Who is the audience?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the main purpose?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the message?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What constraints might have shaped it?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nAnalyze the argument.\r\n<ul style=\"padding-left: 12px !important;margin-left: 0 !important\">\r\n \t<li>What types of evidence are used?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Why is this evidence and structure suitable or not suitable for the situation?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"p2\"><\/p>","rendered":"<div class=\"menu-table\"><span class=\"menu-table-title\">Chapter Contents<\/span><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-a\">Argument and Persuasion in Technical Communication<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-1\">Understanding Rhetorical Situation<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-2\">Ethical and Professional Responsibilities in Argumentation<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-3\">Formulating Effective Arguments<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-4\">Key Takeaways<\/a><a class=\"menu-table-panel\" href=\"#section-5\">Practice Task<\/a><\/div>\n<h1 id=\"section-a\"><span style=\"color: #664a25\"><strong>Argument and Persuasion in Technical Communication<\/strong><\/span><\/h1>\n<p class=\"p1\">In engineering, making a strong argument is just as important as finding the right technical solution. In a proposal, for example, you must convince others\u2014whether a client or another decision-maker\u2014that your solution is worth pursuing. This involves earning trust, addressing different viewpoints, and demonstrating that your ideas can withstand scrutiny. When you argue effectively, good solutions are more likely to be understood, accepted, and implemented, even in complex situations.\u00a0<b><\/b><\/p>\n<h1 id=\"section-1\" class=\"p1\"><span style=\"color: #664a25\"><b>Understanding Rhetorical Situation\u00a0\u00a0<\/b><\/span><b><\/b><\/h1>\n<p class=\"p2\">Rhetoric is the art of effective or persuasive speaking and writing. When you use rhetoric, you aim to convince others to accept your interpretation of facts, help them understand those facts, or motivate them to act in response. The most persuasive messages are well adapted to the knowledge, values, and expectations of readers. Therefore, before you write or speak, ask yourself:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"p2\"><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Who is the audience?<\/span><\/li>\n<li>What is the main message you need to convey?<\/li>\n<li>How will you adapt to the audience\u2019s level of knowledge? (This doesn\u2019t mean \u201cdumbing down\u201d the message. Instead, it means choosing wordings and explanations that make the content clear and accessible.)<\/li>\n<li>How will you establish credibility and demonstrate your expertise through your communication?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 class=\"p1\"><b>Elements of the Rhetorical Situation\u00a0\u00a0<\/b><b><\/b><\/h2>\n<p class=\"p2\">The rhetorical situation is the context in which communication takes place. Understanding this context means examining several key elements that shape how a message is created, delivered, and received. While different textbooks may categorize these elements in slightly different ways, the core components are generally the same: the writer (or speaker), the purpose, the audience, the message, and the broader context.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">As part of context, it is also essential to consider constraints\u2014the local factors that limit or direct the communication process. So, if &#8220;context&#8221; is the broader environment in which communication takes place, &#8220;constraints&#8221; are the walls, ceiling, and floor of that environment. These may include time limits, word counts, access to information, organizational policies, workplace-provided templates, as well as constraints relating to the medium of communication itself. Such constraints can significantly influence the way you structure and present your arguments.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">Let\u2019s look at the elements of rhetorical situation in a bit more detail:<\/p>\n<h3>Writer<\/h3>\n<p class=\"p2\">Writers inevitably bring their own experiences, perspectives, and identities to the act of communication. This includes prior knowledge and learning that shape their approach, as well as personal background factors such as culture, gender, values, and beliefs. These elements\u2014a writer\u2019s \u201cpersonal baggage\u201d\u2014influence decisions about what to include, how to frame ideas, and even which arguments feel most compelling. Far from being purely neutral, writing is always shaped by the writer\u2019s viewpoint. Recognizing these influences in yourself, along with potential biases they may create, is essential for crafting messages that are credible and trustworthy.<\/p>\n<h3>Purpose<\/h3>\n<p class=\"p2\">Purpose is the reason for writing\u2014the outcome you want to achieve through your message. Common purposes include the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Persuade <\/b>\u2013 Convince the audience to adopt a viewpoint or take a specific action.<\/li>\n<li><b>Educate <\/b>\u2013 Help the audience deepen their understanding of a topic.<\/li>\n<li><b>Call to action<\/b> \u2013 Motivate the audience to act, change behavior, or support a cause.<\/li>\n<li><b>Inform <\/b>\u2013 Provide clear, accurate facts or explanations.<\/li>\n<li><b>Entertain <\/b>\u2013 Engage and delight the audience through storytelling, humor, or other creative means.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"p2\">In practice, many pieces of writing combine multiple purposes. For example, a proposal primarily aims to persuade but also informs and educates readers about the problem and possible solutions. Being clear about your primary and secondary purposes helps you focus your content, choose the right tone, and structure your message to achieve your writing goals.<\/p>\n<h3>Audience<\/h3>\n<p class=\"p2\">An audience\u2019s ability to understand, connect with, and appreciate a message depends on a range of factors, including<\/p>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Age<\/b> \u2013 which influences familiarity with certain topics, references, and communication styles.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Social class<\/b> \u2013 which shapes access to resources, life experiences, and perspectives.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Education and experience<\/b> \u2013 which affect background knowledge, vocabulary, and the ability to grasp technical details.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Culture<\/b> \u2013 which influences values, communication norms, and interpretations of meaning.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Expectations<\/b> \u2013 which shape what the audience anticipates in terms of content, tone, and structure.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"p2\">By clearly identifying your audience\u2014whether it\u2019s a single decision-maker, a broad public group, or a specialized professional community\u2014you can adapt your content, tone, and level of detail to meet their needs and expectations. Effective communication begins with meeting the audience where they are, then guiding them toward where you want them to be.<\/p>\n<h3>Message<\/h3>\n<p class=\"p2\">The message is the core content of your communication\u2014the ideas, information, or arguments you want to convey. It includes not only the main points but also how those points are structured, emphasized, and supported. An effective message is tailored to the specific situation, aligning with the purpose, audience, and context.<\/p>\n<h3>Context<\/h3>\n<p class=\"p2\">Context refers to the external circumstances that create the need for communication and that influence how the message is received. It shapes both the urgency of the message and the strategies used to convey it. Context can include<\/p>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Timing<\/b> \u2013 The contextual moment\u2014including crises, decision deadlines, or key project milestones\u2014during which communication occurs.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Location<\/b> \u2013 The physical or virtual setting where communication takes place, which can affect tone, formality, and accessibility.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Events<\/b> \u2013 Current or recent developments\u2014political, social, economic, or organizational\u2014that frame how the audience interprets the message.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Cultural expectations<\/b> \u2013 Shared norms, traditions, and values that shape what is considered appropriate or persuasive.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"p1\">Recognizing context allows writers to adjust their message for maximum relevance and impact. Even a well-crafted argument may fail if it doesn&#8217;t account for the situation in which it will be delivered.\u00a0<b><\/b><\/p>\n<h3>Constraints<\/h3>\n<p class=\"p2\">Constraints are the limitations or requirements that influence how you present your message. After identifying your influences as the writer, purposes, audience, message, and context, consider the possible constraints that relate to each of these.<\/p>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Writer-related constraints<\/b>\u00a0\u2013 your own expertise, position, or level of authority on the topic<b>\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Purpose-related constraints<\/b>\u00a0\u2013 requirements to meet organizational objectives<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Audience-related constraints<\/b>\u00a0\u2013 technical background, time constraints for reading, or pre-existing biases<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Message-related constraints<\/b> \u2013 availability and reliability of data, or the complexity of the subject matter<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Context-related constraints<\/b>\u00a0\u2013 deadlines, budget constraints, institutional policies, or prevailing cultural norms<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"p2\">Identifying constraints early can help you refine your approach to better fit the situation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">Once you have clearly defined the elements of the rhetorical situation\u2014writer, purpose, audience, message, context, and constraints\u2014you can plan, draft, and deliver your communication with greater confidence. Every communication task exists within a rhetorical situation. Whether you are writing a report, giving a presentation, or composing an email, success depends on your ability to assess the situation and adapt your approach. Effective communication is built on this awareness and the flexibility to tailor your message to fit the circumstances.<\/p>\n<h1 id=\"section-2\"><span style=\"color: #664a25\">Ethical and Professional Responsibilities in Argumentation<\/span><\/h1>\n<p class=\"p2\">Making complex ideas accessible is a core part of both effective persuasion and ethical engineering communication. An argument should not exclude, confuse, or mislead its audience. As well as being convincing, ethical arguments must be transparent, fair, and grounded in respect for the people who rely on them.<\/p>\n<div style=\"margin-top: 20px;margin-bottom: -60px\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_1022\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1022\" style=\"width: 3840px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1022 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/01\/PHOTOB1-1.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"3840\" height=\"2160\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1022\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo by <a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/@silverkblack\">Vitaly Gariev<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/photos\/woman-writing-complex-formulas-on-a-chalkboard-wall-4wSQmHIlD0Q\">Unsplash<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"p2\">There are several key reasons why clear and accessible argumentation is essential in engineering communication:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Allowing readers to make informed decisions<\/b> \u2013 Engineers often write for a wide range of stakeholders\u2014such as clients, policymakers, interdisciplinary teams, or members of the public\u2014who may not have a technical background. If ideas are not communicated clearly, these audiences cannot make informed, ethical, or safe decisions based on the information provided.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Respect for the audience<\/b> \u2013 Clarity demonstrates respect for the audience\u2019s right to understand the implications of engineering work. Ethical persuasion involves transparency, not manipulation. Overwhelming the audience with jargon or unnecessary complexity can obscure risks or trade-offs and undermine informed consent.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Building trust and credibility<\/b> \u2013 Audiences are more likely to accept an argument when it is clear. Ambiguity or unnecessary complexity can create doubt, foster suspicion, or lead to misinterpretation<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Fulfilling social responsibility<\/b> \u2013 Engineering decisions often affect public safety, the environment, and equity. Clear communication ensures that affected communities can understand what is at stake, participate in meaningful dialogue, and express concerns. This aligns with the engineer\u2019s responsibility to serve the public good.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Supporting accountability<\/b> \u2013 Clear communication creates a transparent record of reasoning and decision-making. If a decision leads to harm, it is essential that the basis for that decision is accessible and understandable\u2014not buried in overly technical language.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"p2\">In short, ethical communication in engineering demands that ideas be not only accurate but also understandable. This ensures that decisions are fair, inclusive, and based on a shared understanding\u2014strengthening both the persuasiveness of your argument and your professional integrity.<\/p>\n<h1 id=\"section-3\"><span style=\"color: #664a25\"><b>Formulating Effective Arguments\u00a0<\/b><\/span><b><\/b><\/h1>\n<p class=\"p2\">Many documents in engineering or computer science are designed to present solutions to problems. One of the most important tasks, then, is to establish that the problem is serious enough to warrant attention. A common pitfall in effective argumentation is the tendency to either overstate or understate problems. For example, if a problem could lead to loss of human life, injury, or serious damage to equipment, you must communicate this idea clearly and forcefully. On the other hand, overemphasizing an issue the reader perceives as minor can weaken your argument and reduce your credibility.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">One effective strategy for developing strong arguments is to appeal to the audience\u2019s rationality. In engineering and computer science, this means using measurements, data, and observable facts to support your claims. Emotional appeals may sometimes add context or human perspective, but they should not replace evidence-based reasoning.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">The evidence you provide should meet four key criteria. It should be<\/p>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Strong<\/b> \u2013 clearly and convincingly supports your claims<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Specific<\/b> \u2013 directly relates to your argument and fits the given context<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Credible<\/b> \u2013 comes from reliable sources that have been reviewed or tested<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Reasonable<\/b> \u2013 persuades an informed audience through its fair interpretations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"p2\">Another effective strategy for creating convincing arguments is to use familiar examples. Examples are especially valuable when addressing readers who may not be deeply familiar with a specific technology or its applications. By illustrating problems and solutions in clear, real-world contexts, you make your argument more accessible and persuasive. Providing examples in an argument is like adding illustrations to a textbook: while text alone can convey information, illustrations make the material more engaging and help clarify complex ideas. In the same way, examples allow your audience to visualize your argument in action.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">For instance, suppose you need to persuade a group of decision-makers who are skeptical about electric vehicles (EVs) because of their higher upfront costs compared to gasoline-powered cars. To promote EV adoption within your company, you might present your case in a meeting as follows:<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p class=\"p2\">While the initial purchase price of an electric vehicle (EV) may be higher than that of a comparable gasoline-powered car, the long-term financial and environmental benefits make EVs a more cost-effective choice over time. In Canada, federal and provincial rebate programs\u2014such as Qu\u00e9bec\u2019s <i>Roulez vert<\/i> incentives or British Columbia\u2019s <i>Go Electric<\/i> program\u2014can significantly reduce the upfront cost. Once purchased, EV owners save on fuel, as electricity is generally cheaper than gasoline, and on maintenance, since EVs have fewer moving parts and require less servicing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">Environmental benefits can also lead to economic advantages. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions and improved air quality can help lower healthcare costs associated with pollution-related illnesses, as seen in other countries. For example, Norway\u2019s widespread EV adoption, supported by strong incentives, has contributed to measurable reductions in air pollution and fuel dependence. This example suggests that higher initial costs are offset over time by savings on fuel, maintenance, and environmental impacts\u2014making EVs both an economical and sustainable choice for the future.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"p2\">Additionally, citing experts can strengthen your argument by lending authority and credibility to your claims. The opinions and findings of respected professionals in the field reassure your audience that your position is supported by established knowledge. For example, when persuading decision-makers about the cost-effectiveness and environmental benefits of EVs, you can reinforce your case by quoting recognized experts. When doing so, be sure to name the individuals and explain why they are credible sources\u2014whether through their research, professional experience, or contributions to the field.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">To promote EVs within your company, you can include the following paragraph in a report:<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p class=\"p2\">The initial investment in electric vehicles (EVs) may seem higher than that of traditional gasoline-powered cars. However, both the financial and environmental long-term savings make EVs a more cost-effective choice over time. A study by the Natural Resources Defense Council, a leading environmental organization, shows that EV owners can save thousands of dollars over the vehicle&#8217;s lifetime compared to gasoline vehicles. This includes savings on fuel, maintenance, and repairs <a href=\"#ref-1\">[1]<\/a>. Additionally, the International Council on Clean Transportation, a respected global authority on sustainable transportation, reports that battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in Europe produce 73% fewer life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions compared to gasoline-powered cars. This highlights the significant environmental benefits of widespread EV adoption <a href=\"#ref-2\">[2]<\/a>. These reports demonstrate that EVs not only offer significant financial savings over time but also have important environmental benefits.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\"><b>References<\/b><\/p>\n<p id=\"ref-1\" class=\"p1\">[1] <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW182323703 BCX8\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\">E<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\">lectric Power Research Institute (EPRI)<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW182323703 BCX8\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW182323703 BCX8\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2Themed SCXW182323703 BCX8\">and <\/span><\/span><\/span>Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), &#8220;Valuing improvements in electric vehicle efficiency,&#8221; Apr. 2021. [Online]. Available: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.epri.com\/research\/products\/000000003002030215\">https:\/\/www.epri.com\/research\/products\/000000003002030215<\/a>. [Accessed: July 15, 2025].<\/p>\n<p id=\"ref-2\" class=\"p1\">[2] International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), &#8220;Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions from passenger cars in the European Union: A 2025 update and key factors to consider,&#8221; Jul. 25, 2025. [Online]. Available: <a href=\"https:\/\/theicct.org\/publication\/electric-cars-life-cycle-analysis-emissions-europe-jul25\/\"><span class=\"s2\">https:\/\/theicct.org\/publication\/electric-cars-life-cycle-analysis-emissions-europe-jul25\/<\/span><\/a>. [Accessed: July 15, 2025].<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"p2\">Another key strategy in building a convincing argument is to anticipate potential objections. Problems rarely exist in isolation, and solutions are often shaped\u2014or limited\u2014by factors beyond engineering design. These can include organizational priorities, technical feasibility, legal and ethical requirements, time constraints, and financial limitations. Readers will expect evidence that you have looked beyond the technical details to consider the broader social, environmental, legal, and ethical implications of your work. Addressing these concerns proactively strengthens your credibility and your argument.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">To anticipate objections effectively, consider the kinds of questions your readers might ask:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li2\">Do we really have a problem or need?<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\">If so, is it important enough to justify action?<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\">Can the problem realistically be solved?<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\">What potential solutions exist?<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\">What benefits can we expect?<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\">What risks or liabilities should we be aware of?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"p2\">Reflecting on these questions before framing your arguments strengthens your logic and shows that you understand your audience\u2019s concerns, which helps build trust with them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">Effective argumentation is never just about presenting the facts. It is also about showing why the problem matters to your audience. Therefore, think about their concerns, values, and priorities, and connect your ideas to what they care about.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">Ask yourself:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li2\">How is this problem personal to my audience?<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\">Do I have evidence demonstrating its importance to them?<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\">How can I connect my argument to what they need or care about?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"p2\">Stepping outside of your own perspective to see issues from your audience\u2019s viewpoint is one of the most challenging aspects of writing. However, it is also one of the most essential strategies for crafting powerful and effective arguments.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">Finally, always be honest in your arguments. Present your case with integrity. Never manipulate or deceive. If readers sense dishonesty, your argument will lose credibility and ultimately collapse.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 id=\"section-4\" class=\"textbox__title\">Key Takeaways<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1418 alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2025\/09\/media_checklist__1_-removebg-preview-smallsize.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"105\" height=\"105\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\">In engineering, persuasive argument comes from careful analysis and planning. This process often involves<\/p>\n<ul style=\"padding-left: 12px !important;margin-left: 0 !important\">\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Understanding the situation<\/b> \u2013 Consider who you are, why you are communicating, who will read your work, what the content of the message is, and what constraints you may face.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Making complex ideas accessible<\/b> \u2013 Use straightforward language and clear explanations to help your audience follow your reasoning.<\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><b>Supporting your claims with solid evidence<\/b> \u2013 Draw on data, expert opinions, and sound analysis, while also anticipating and addressing possible objections.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"p2\">Focusing on these areas will help you create arguments that are technically sound, easy to follow, and persuasive to your audience.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 id=\"section-5\" class=\"textbox__title\">Practice Task<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"p1\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1476 alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2025\/09\/output-onlinepngtools609x609.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"90\" height=\"90\" \/>Find a document in your field that has an argument, such as a short report or an article.\u00a0<b><\/b><\/p>\n<p>Identify the rhetorical situation.<\/p>\n<ul style=\"padding-left: 12px !important;margin-left: 0 !important\">\n<li>Who wrote it?<\/li>\n<li>Who is the audience?<\/li>\n<li>What is the main purpose?<\/li>\n<li>What is the message?<\/li>\n<li>What constraints might have shaped it?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Analyze the argument.<\/p>\n<ul style=\"padding-left: 12px !important;margin-left: 0 !important\">\n<li>What types of evidence are used?<\/li>\n<li>Why is this evidence and structure suitable or not suitable for the situation?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"p2\">\n","protected":false},"author":98,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-286","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":188,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/286","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/98"}],"version-history":[{"count":54,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/286\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1512,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/286\/revisions\/1512"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/188"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/286\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=286"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=286"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=286"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbooks.concordia.ca\/practical-guide-to-technical-writing\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=286"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}